The Enigma of Discant Renaissance Flute
For someone like me, a different flute player, embarking on the journey
of learning the Renaissance
Flute through self-study and personal exploration, it would seem natural
to start with the form.
However, I made an effort to delve into the essence first. Instead of the commonly played
tenor flute, I found myself drawn to and playing the lesser-known Discant Renaissance Flute.
－ Kagemitsu Hasegawa －
Kagemitsu Hasegawa The Laws of Tonalia 日本語ページ
Having started the Renaissance Flute journey just a month ago, I decided
to
record a trial performance. John Dowland: Fortune My Foe (July 29, 2023).
| The book "Portrait of the Flute: Its Historical Transformation"
(published by Tokyo Shoseki) in the above image was graciously gifted to
me by the author, Ririko Maeda, when she became my student in August 2020.
Maeda is a leading figure in this field, active not only domestically but
also internationally. In a manner of speaking, the mentor-student relationship would be reversed, this book has become the bible of the Renaissance Flute for me. To gain a renewed understanding of the Renaissance, let me quote the section "What is the Renaissance" from this book: "The Renaissance, meaning 'rebirth' refers to a cultural movement that emerged in 14th-century Italy and spread to France and Germany by the 16th century. It involved rediscovering the value of classical Greek and Roman cultures long forgotten under the authority of the medieval Catholic Church. The people of the Middle Ages, living in harmony with God, based their actions on the teachings of the Church. However, Renaissance humanists, rejecting all constraints, endeavored to observe and contemplate things with their own eyes and minds. While not denying religion, many great artists, including Leonardo da Vinci, were born in an era characterized by a spirit that encouraged enjoying the present life rather than leading an ascetic and virtuous existence solely for the afterlife. In such a period that valued the freedom of expressing individuality, how was the transverse flute used?" (P.24) |
| The Renaissance Flute, seemingly less known among historical instruments,
is explained by Maeda in the section "Chamber Flutes" in the
aforementioned book: "As we enter the 16th century, transverse flutes
gained explosive popularity, and the number of existing documents rapidly
increased. The social role of the flute became clear, separating into the
'fife' used as an outdoor instrument and the 'flute' used by amateurs for
chamber music. (Omitted) In Michael Praetorius's 'Syntagma Musicum' published
in 1619, illustrations clearly distinguish military instruments on the
right and chamber instruments on the left, with three of them designated
for chamber music. By the early 17th century, two types of flutes were
completely differentiated." (P.29) The accompanying image is a diagram from 'Syntagma Musicum' depicting vertical and transverse flutes from the Renaissance period. Maeda writes in the section "Chamber Flutes" of the same book: "In Praetorius's diagram, the leftmost is a discant in A, followed by a tenor / alto in D, and the rightmost is a bass in G." (PP.29-30) Thus, Praetorius's diagram clearly indicates the tuning of the Renaissance Flutes to A, D, and G on three pipes. As a disclaimer, the term "Renaissance Flute" is a later designation, and in Praetorius's diagram, it is labeled as "Querfloiten / ganz Stimmerk." Querfloiten, an archaic German term, translates to "transverse flutes" signifying their horizontal orientation. Stimmerk, also an archaic term, suggests "tuned instruments" indicating "transverse flutes / tuned instruments" Therefore, Praetorius's 'Syntagma Musicum' confirms that, in Germany in 1619, all tuned Renaissance Flutes were in A for discant, D for tenor / alto, and G for bass. |
| On the other hand, in the introductory section "Renaissance Flute in Context - Past and Present" of the instructional book "The Renaissance Flute / A Contemporary Guide" co-authored by Kate Clark and Amanda Markwick (published by Oxford University Press), it is stated: "It is clear from these sources that the flute, throughout the sixteenth century and well into the seventeenth century, was conceived of as a consort instrument. In other words, flutes were made in "families" consisting of three different lengths: the bass flute in G, the tenor / alto flute in D, and the soprano flute mostly in A, though there is some evidence that at least by the turn of the seventeenth century, the somallest flutes could also be made in G. Throughout the same period, violins, viola da gamba, recorders, lutes, and other instruments were likewise made in sets or families." In this way, the enigma arises whether the discant Renaissance Flute is in A or G, or perhaps both. Now, going back about a century from the publication of 'Syntagma Musicum' in 1619, we find 'Musica instrumentalis deudsch' published in Germany in 1529. Written by music theorist and composer Martin Agricola (1486-1556), the diagram in the image above is from this work, titled "Dier Schweitzer Pfeiffen." It labels the longer (lower-pitched) pipes as Bassus, Tenor, Altus, and Discantus. By deducing from the description by Clark and Markwick, it seems reasonable to consider that the low-range bass is in G, followed by the tenor in D, the alto in A, and the highest-pitched discant in G. Therefore, let's position this as the "Hypothesis of Swiss Flute" 'Musica instrumentalis deudsch' provides tuning, fingering, and the speed of breath needed for each Renaissance Flute, indicating that the bass is in D, the discant in E, and as seen in the image below, the tenor and alto are marked as Unissonus, and only A is mentioned.  This diagram has been the cause of misunderstandings for centuries. Therefore, both Maeda, Clark and Markwick likely identify D as the tenor / alto. However, in the diagram of "Dier Schweitzer Pfeiffen" the alto is depicted slightly shorter than the tenor, and theoretically, it cannot be said that the tenor and alto are in unison. Firstly, on the right side of this diagram, both for the bass on page 1, the tenor / alto on page 2, and the discant on page 3, "Vent" or "breath expulsion" is written. On the left side, as indicated in the above diagram, it instructs to blow at a mundane or ordinary speed, denoted by "mediocri." In that case, since there is an abbreviation for Ten and Alt in the breath expulsion and speed instructions, the fact that A and D are connected by a line has a special meaning. And, the last issue is the word "Unissonus" but I realized that this does not mean unison, i.e., the same note. Since the Latin word "Unissonus" means "Oneness" or "Harmony," interpreting it as the latter harmony, A and D are in a perfect fourth relationship, precisely forming a harmonious interval. Based on these considerations, I concluded that the tenor is in A pitch, and the alto is in D pitch in this book. As a result, the tenor's A pitch is five degrees higher than the bass's D pitch. The alto's D pitch is four degrees higher than the tenor's A pitch. And the discant's E pitch is two degrees higher than the alto's, leading to my own perspective. Even if this interpretation is incorrect, the Renaissance flute transitioned from four pipes to three pipes during the last century or so. If this description is correct, it would mean a significant change in tuning. Furthermore, Maeda states in the previously mentioned book's section on "Existing Renaissance Flutes" as follows: "There are only about 45 surviving Renaissance flutes in the world today. They come in various lengths, ranging from about 30 cm to 90 cm, but can be broadly categorized into three sizes: discant, tenor, and bass. Unfortunately, there is only one discant flute remaining in the museum in Brussels, and even that instrument may have been made in the 19th century. Moreover, it is currently missing, so its authenticity remains uncertain." (PP36-37) Thus, not only is there a lack of existing discant Renaissance flutes from that time, but there are discrepancies in the pitch as well. In "Musica instrumentalis deudsch" it's an E pipe, in "Syntagma Musicum" it's an A pipe, and in the "Hypothesis of Swiss Flute" it's a G pipe, deepening the enigma. By the way, Clark and Markwick, on the website "Renaissance and Baroque Musical Instruments" in an article titled "An Introduction to the Renaissance Flute" writes the following: "The tenor renaissance flute in D is the most versatile, as it is able to cover the soprano, alto, and tenor ranges of nearly any 16th-century piece of music. A bass flute in G completes the flute consort, although adding the bright color of a descant flute(My note: Same as discant flute) in A or in G can really contribute to a jovial character (especially nice in dance music, or light-hearted chansons, for example). If it is an "A or G discant flute" it aligns with both "Syntagma Musicum" and the "Hypothesis of Swiss Flute" Now, in contemporary Germany, Christoph Hammann's work categorizes the Renaissance flute, with the soprano in D and the alto in G, as shown in the attached picture. |
| As a performer of the ryuteki, I sometimes feel that I am perceived by CD buyers and listeners. If I were a performer, it would be in the context of gagaku(ancient Japanese court music), where I am not only a performer on the transverse flute but also play the role of a player of the Ohichiriki, string instruments, percussion instruments, and even dance and song. In gagaku's transverse flute, there are not only ryuteki but also four types: komabue, kagurabue, and the long-lost azuma-asobibue. Among these, I consider the most precious and sublime instrument to be the kagurabue. In contemporary gagaku, the kagurabue is a flute that communicates with the gods, and in the Heian period, it was positioned as a flute for playing with the gods during the divine play. However, there are surviving Heian-era kagurabue scores that are completely different from contemporary gagaku. By the way, one of the easiest to misunderstand is the kagura of gagaku. Kagura in gagaku is also called "Mikagura" which is a term that differentiates it from the well-known "Okagura." The former is a performing art for rituals dedicated to the gods, and the latter is an entertainment for the public, completely different existences. Now, the ryuteki, which is a Tang music flute with roots in China, has seven finger holes, while the ancient Japanese kagurabue has six. As you can see in the above image, the discant Renaissance flute also has six finger holes, and the size is roughly the same. And being six-holed, it is the prototype of the transverse flute family, i.e., the primitive form, making one want to find the correlation between the two. However, unfortunately, I have not been able to find any clues so far. |
| The differences between the discant Renaissance flute and the gagaku kagurabue are countless, starting from their birthplaces, history, music genres, scores, pitch, and shape. The most significant difference in shape is probably not the size of the embouchure but the size of the air hole. When accurately measured and compared, in the above image, the two pipes have an area ratio of exactly 1:4, meaning that the gagaku kagurabue has an area four times larger. However, this is because of the current gagaku kagurabue. For example, the original form of the ryuteki stored in the Sh?s?in has no winding (wrapping with materials such as rattan or cherry bark), and the embouchure is also small. Therefore, there is still a glimmer of hope in finding the relationship between the two pipes. Now, this discant Renaissance flute has a smaller embouchure than any transverse flute I have ever played, making it difficult to master the aperture to hit the sweet spot. Incidentally, the embouchure of the discant pipe is smaller than that of the tenor pipe, and I felt it was more difficult to produce sound. By the way, the pitch of gagaku is currently set at A=430Hz, but Yawata Yoroyuki, the maker of the gagaku kagurabue in the above image, taught me that the Ise dedication (dedication to Ise Jingu) is 430Hz, and the Imperial Household Agency dedication is slightly lower. In this way, since 430Hz is the standard in gagaku, I had a tenor Renaissance flute made domestically at a classical pitch of 430Hz, which was the first step into this region. And the discant Renaissance flute in the above image, made by Barbara Stanley of the UK, plays around 443Hz when I play it. Violinist Sumire Hirotsuru wrote, "Europe often uses a slightly higher pitch of 443Hz (sometimes 444Hz depending on the location)," so I conveniently think that this discant Renaissance flute is Euro-spec with modern pitch. |
| The image above is Barbara Stanley's fingering chart titled "Barbara Stanley / Flute fingering chart / Tenor in D," accompanying Stanley's Renaissance Flute. Unfortunately, there is no fingering chart available for the Discant in A, so it is assumed to be shared among the Bass, Tenor, and Discant. It's worth noting that the mentioned address is not Stanley's current residence; she currently resides in Cambridge. Her involvement in instrument making began in collaboration with the late Graham Lyndon-Jones and later continued with individual projects. They also co-authored "The Curtal" in 1983. |
| The transverse flute in gagaku is crafted by drilling holes into bamboo, often adorned with rattan or birch at nine or ten points to prevent cracking. This binding serves both a practical purpose and as an aesthetic decoration, similar to applying brocade to the head of a flute (referred to as "tail" in gagaku until the Edo period). Coming from this background, the complexity of the modern flute, assembled from around 140 parts resembling a metallic mechanical machine, is strikingly different. On the other hand, the Renaissance flute, with its simple structure, crafted by merely drilling holes into wood without any embellishments, exudes a Platonic beauty and elegance. As Plato said, "All beautiful things, harmonies, rhythms, whether in words or in sounds, are simple." However, with only six finger holes, playing derivative notes on the Renaissance Flute becomes not only complex but also challenging, requiring different fingerings even for octave notes. In the book's section on "Inner Diameter and Tube Thickness," Maeda states, "The crucial inner diameter that determines the tone and balance of the flute (including the Renaissance flute) is almost cylindrical, in contrast to the conical shape that became prevalent in the 18th century with the Baroque flute. A completely cylindrical flute cannot achieve the octave pitch effectively." As mentioned earlier, there is no fingering chart for Stanley's Discant in A, and it appears that Stanley, like many others, uses the Tenor in D fingering chart. Therefore, I examined existing fingering charts for six types of Renaissance Flutes before scrutinizing Stanley's Discant in A fingering. I quoted the "Barbara Stanley / Flute fingering chart / Tenor in D" directly and labeled it as "Stanley's Fingering" in sections 1 and 2. In section 3, labeled "Other's Fingering," I added different fingerings verified from other sources. Additionally, section 4, titled "Invented Fingering," includes unique fingerings derived from playing Stanley's Discant Renaissance Flute. |
| This painting, titled "Child Angel Playing a Flute," was created by Bernardino Luini(1480/1482-1532), a Northern Italian painter belonging to Leonardo da Vinci's school, around the year 1500. In this depiction of a child angel playing the Renaissance flute, a noteworthy detail is the left thumb. In paintings portraying the playing of the Renaissance flute, the left thumb is often placed inside, similar to how one would play a modern flute. However, this artwork, representing the Renaissance period's transverse flute performance, shows the left thumb placed outside. While I used to categorize instruments as Japanese or Western, Japanese transverse flutes like the gagaku transverse flute, nohkan, and shakuhachi position the left thumb outside, whereas Western flute players, even in historical music, place it inside. Placing the left thumb inside not only creates an unnatural angle for the index finger and others to cover the finger holes but also imposes a load on the body from an ergonomic perspective. Therefore, when asked why I position the left thumb outside, I respond, "It's the angel's thumb." |
| "Unzione" is an Italian term referring primarily to the act of applying or pouring oil and secondarily to anointing in Catholic rituals. In English, the synonymous term is "anointing." Notably, "oiling" in English also signifies petroleum contamination, but it seems the term is applicable to the maintenance of wooden wind instruments. As I am a gagaku performer, I will deliberately express it here using the Japanese term "toyu" in order to convey a specific nuance. Now, in Clark and Markwick's aforementioned work, in the section titled "Oiling the Flute," it is written as follows: "We use both almond and linseed oils, sometimes a combination of both." In this way, almond oil is often used for oiling wooden wind instruments used in early music. However, Vincent Bernolin, who won the Outstanding Instrument Maker Award in 2006 as a recorder maker, expresses caution on his website: "Although the use of almond oil is commonly heard of, I do not recommend it for the following reasons: it is prone to oxidation, has a strong odor, and tends to solidify over prolonged use" (linseed oil is more prone to oxidation and solidification than almond oil). The use of almond oil has both supporters and critics. Therefore, let's consider from a chemical perspective which oils are suitable for oiling. The following is a compilation based on references such as aromatherapy certification texts. 1. Oil Classification There are three types of oils: drying oils, semi-drying oils, and non-drying oils, classified based on their iodine value. 2. Iodine Value The iodine value is the number of grams of iodine added to 100 grams of fat, and a higher iodine value indicates a higher content of polyunsaturated fatty acids with more double bonds. 3. Drying Oils Drying oils have an iodine value of 130 or higher and will oxidize and solidify when exposed to air. Types of drying oils include grape seed oil, kukui nut oil, evening primrose oil, rosehip oil, flaxseed oil, perilla oil, tung oil, and others. 4.Semi-Drying Oils Semi-drying oils have an iodine value between 100 and 130, and while they undergo reactions in the air, they do not solidify completely. Examples of semi-drying oils include weedjam oil, almond oil, sesame oil, soybean oil, corn oil, cottonseed oil, sunflower oil, safflower oil, mustard oil, and more. 5.Non-Drying Oils Non-drying oils have an iodine value below 100 and hardly solidify in the air. Examples of non-drying oils include avocado oil, olive oil (recommended by Mr. Bernolan), camellia oil, castor oil, coconut oil, palm oil, macadamia nut oil, rapeseed oil, peanut oil, and others. Now, regarding the maintenance of traditional Japanese wind instruments in traditional music, such as the transverse flute and hichiriki in gagaku, camellia oil has traditionally been used. For the shakuhachi, walnut oil seems to be used, but these choices are not absolute standards, and in modern times, some musicians use oils designed for Western instruments. Similar to Bernolin's preference, I also consider non-drying oils that hardly solidify in the air to be suitable. As a practitioner of gagaku, I would recommend camellia oil without hesitation. The main component of camellia oil, oleic acid triglyceride, is a monounsaturated fatty acid that is highly resistant to oxidation. Additionally, triglycerides are a major component of human sebum, making it beneficial for the skin and, consequently, suitable for both the instrument and the performer. Furthermore, in the high-quality class of olive oil recommended by Bernolin, where oleic acid content is 75-79%, camellia oil exceeds 80%. The image above is of the "Pure Camellia Oil" (manufactured by Kurobara Honpo) that I am currently using. |
| The above image is the cover of the early edition of "THE FIRST BOOK of Song or Ayres foure parts with Tableture for the Lute," authored by the late Renaissance English composer and lute player John Dowland (1563-1626). (The first edition was in 1597, and this is the second edition from 1600.) My interest in the discant Renaissance flute and the decision to actually play it were sparked not only by being a layman but also by encountering the beautiful yet melancholic compositions of Dowland. Regarding vibrato in Dowland's vocal pieces, most singers today use vibrato. But was vibrato used in Renaissance flute playing at that time? In the section on "Vibrato" in the aforementioned book, Maeda writes the following: "In churches and noble residences where Renaissance music was performed, which were mostly made of stone and had much longer reverberation compared to Japanese homes made of paper and wood, it is believed that Renaissance singers who always sang in such places used non-vibrato singing techniques. (Omitted) What Renaissance instrumental music aimed for was the imitation of singing. Therefore, it is unlikely that instrumentalists added vibrato that singers did not use. However, there are descriptions that give the opposite impression. Agricola says in the flute section of 'Musica instrumentalis deudsch' published in 1529, 'If you want to learn the basics, learn to breathe with trembling breath, which gives elegance to the music of all wind instruments.' Furthermore, in the revised edition in 1545, he also says, 'In playing, it is desired to blow with trembling breath, as taught in the method of Polish violin, as one of the decorations of the organ. However, this is rarely used in Germany.' What do these two passages mean? It can be imagined that 'trembling breath' refers to what is commonly known as vibrato." (PP.59-62) Firstly, considering that musical situations differ even in neighboring countries like Germany and Poland, and that it's impossible to speak universally about all of Europe, especially during the nearly 300 years of the Renaissance period, it's inconceivable that there was no change whatsoever. In the 16 years between the initial publication in 1529 and the revised edition in 1545 of 'Musica instrumentalis deudsch,' the wording changes from "learn to breathe with trembling breath" to "it is desired to blow with trembling breath," indicating a progression from merely learning vibrato to actively practicing it. Considering that Dowland's sheet music was published more than half a century after the revised edition of 'German Instruments,' it is reasonable to assume that the wave of vibrato had certainly reached England. Moreover, especially in Dowland's secular songs, which are neither church nor court music, it seems entirely reasonable to assume that vibrato was applied in performance. |
| The above image is a painting titled "Noblewomen Making Music" (part of the Count of Lowenstein's collection at Rohrau Castle in Austria), drawn around 1520. It is not hard to imagine that during the Renaissance period, the standard practice was to play the flute faithfully to the sheet music, as depicted in this painting. So, were ornamental techniques employed in flute playing during the Renaissance, and if so, what were these techniques like? To explore these questions, let's delve into Hans-Martin Linde's work, "Kleine Anleitung Zum Verzieren Alter Musik" (A Brief Guide to Ornamentation in Early Music), published in 1958. In the introductory chapter of this book, under the heading "Ornamentation in Early Music," the following is written: "What should be understood under the concept of 'Ornamentation'? From the 14th to the 19th century, the term 'Diminution,' which is used for the concept of 'Ornamentation,' along with various expressions such as Manieren, Ornamente, Coloraturen, Agrements, Graces, Fiorituren, etc., answers our question clearly. In other words, 'Diminution' comes from the Latin word 'diminuere,' meaning 'to break into smaller parts.'" Firstly, the existence of ornamental techniques during the Renaissance period is self-evident, as noted in the quoted passage, and it requires no further argument. The ornamental technique is identified in German as 'Diminution,' as indicated in the text. In addition, the "Standard Music Encyclopedia" (published by Ongaku-no-Tomo Sha) positions the technique of diminutio (subdivision of notes) from the 16th century onward as crucial under the entry for "Ornamentation" (by Ichiro Kakura). Needless to say, the Latin term diminutio corresponds to the German Diminution. Clark and Markwick, in the section on "Articulation for Quick Diminutions" in the aforementioned book, present seven types of diminutions for both "Descending," that is, the technique of forebeat (ornamentation) using a descending scale, and "Ascending," that is, the technique of forebeat (ornamentation) using an ascending scale. The seven types refer to the number of pre-beat notes, ranging from one to seven, and are notated in sixteenth notes. Now, when playing Renaissance music on a Renaissance flute, is it just me who feels uncomfortable with the idea of employing modern ornamental techniques without considering the historical context? As mentioned earlier, Maeda writes, "What Renaissance instrumental music aimed for was the imitation of singing." Therefore, as a dilettante who values historical accuracy, when choosing to play ornamentally, I believe it is ideal to stick to basic diminutions, resulting in a performance that is traditional and unadorned. |
| Naturally, the discant Renaissance flute, which I fell in love with due to its resemblance to the kagurague in gagaku, seems to have no role other than in the consort of Renaissance flutes, i.e., the performance of discant, tenor, and bass, which cover the three types of Renaissance flutes. However, in contemporary Renaissance flute consorts, it is common to see performances with two tenors and a bass. Furthermore, even upon researching on YouTube, there is only one video featuring the discant Renaissance flute by Maika Saito, and it is treated merely as an introduction within a talk. Similarly, there are only two videos for the similar alto Renaissance flute (in G), one by Alexis Kossenko and another by Na'ama Lion. In essence, it appears that the discant Renaissance flute has become unnecessary and forgotten in modern times. Knowing this reality only deepens my affection, and if that's the case, I have no hesitation in transposing and playing the beloved compositions of John Dowland. Therefore, I have considered the suitable keys for playing the discant Renaissance flute in the key of A. 1. Basic Scales G Major = E Minor D Major = B Minor 2. One Semitone Up and Down A Major = F# Minor C Major = A Minor 3. Two Semitones Up and Down E Major = C# Minor F Major = D Minor I have defined the 'basic scales playable in the lower register with the fundamental fingering for the flute family' as the fundamental scales for the Renaissance flute. These are the G Major and D Major scales from point 1. By adding an accidental to one note in each of the scales mentioned in point 1, the scales in point 2, A Major and C Major, are formed. Furthermore, by adding an accidental to one note in each of the scales mentioned in point 2, the scales in point 3, E Major and F Major, are formed. With these six scales, it can be considered an acceptable range for discant Renaissance flute playing, as scales with more accidentals would make the performance more challenging. (December 19, 2023) |